The ability to perform multiple simultaneous biomarker measurements in complex samples with high sensitivity presents a large challenge to disease diagnostics and biological studies. Technologies such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR), and cDNA microarrays have been used for comparative and quantitative global DNA and mRNA expression studies. Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2D-PAGE) and immunoassays, such as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), have been used to analyze protein components from complex mixtures. However, these technologies have several limitations and suffer from low dynamic range, low sensitivity, low specificity, labor intensiveness, lack of scalability or multiplex capability, inability to analyze large analytes, and/or inability to detect binding events in real-time. Moreover, many existing technology platforms, such as microarrays, are equilibrium based detection applications that are incapable of real-time binding detection, which is important for eliminating signal bias of non-specific binding. Another detection platform, Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) sensors, has been used to measure binding-induced changes in the local refractive index of the sensors, but is not amenable to large scale multiplexing or operation in complex media or clinical samples. These drawbacks have limited the widespread applicability of current detection platforms in diverse analytical settings.